If I were to ask you, “Who were free people of color in America?” how would you answer?
If you were to survey say 100 Americans with a reasonable grasp of US history, I’d guess that the majority would provide a least one of the following responses:
- “Free Negros” who lived “Up North”. By 1804, all Northern states had voted to abolish the institution of slavery within their borders
- Mixed-race, French “Creoles” of Charleston, South Carolina and New Orleans, Louisiana
Both responses are correct. This is most of what we learn about pre-Civil War free people of color in high school history class. What I’ve learned since then, through genealogical research on my own family, is that there was much broader representation of free people of color living in the American south prior to the end of the Civil War. There were free communities of color established across many states throughout the south. People within these communities were typically mixed race of African and possibly Native American ancestry. Paul Heinegg’s book Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, documents these families of color who lived throughout the south and who trace their freedom back to 17th century Colonial America. The Cumbos were one of those free families of color.
The Cumbos as free people of color in America are recognized in American history. Cumbos fought in the Revolutionary War. The names of Daniel Cumbo, John Cumbo, Michael Cumbo, Peter Cumbo and Richard Cumbo are memorialized on a commemorative headstone located in Jamestown, VA, dedicated to “Men of Color…Patriots who served in support of our nation’s war for independence.” The story of Edith Cumbo, as a free woman of color born in 1735 to Richard Cumbo, the son of Emanuell Cambow, is featured in Colonial Williamsburg. According to the blog of Dr. Warren Milteer of Virginia Tech’s History Department, many free men of color fought for the Union in the Civil War, serving in colored regiments. Included in the list of names of colored soldiers from Hertford County, North Carolina was John Cumbo.
Discovering my own ancestry from free people of color was quite an experience. As an African American, I knew that I descended from enslaved persons and possibly slave owners. This meant that as I began researching my family, I rarely encountered records on my ancestors of African descent prior to 1870, because only free citizens were counted in census records. So it was a thrill to discover an 1820 census record for my 5th great grandfather Britton Cumbo Sr. of Northampton County, North Carolina. He was listed as the head of a “free colored” household. A 1830 census record for his household was included in Dr. Carter G. Woodson’s 1925 study on behalf of the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, of Free Black Heads of Family, Northampton County, North Carolina.
His son Britton Cumbo Jr., my 4th great grandfather, appears on the 1850 census for Northampton County, listed as “mulatto”, offering proof that he lived as a free colored man in North Carolina prior to the Civil War. However, while he was free from the bonds of slavery, he was likely not free from segregation, discrimination and a reduced status as a citizen due to his color. Other documents I have unearthed hint at the tenuous nature of his status as free in the south pre-Civil War.
Britton Jr.’s father died around 1837 when he was only a boy of 12. North Carolina court records state that he was apprenticed to a man named Jesse Morgan. When I reviewed the census record for Jesse Morgan’s household in 1840, it lists 3 white persons and 1 slave, possibly a reference to Britton who was an apprentice. I also found a History of Potecasi Baptist Church, located in Northampton County, which references Britton. In describing its historic church building it states:
The second church building…contained a gallery for slaves which was later removed. It had two double door entrances and a steeple of moderate height. The second of our three church buildings sits today to the rear of the present brick one. Of the slaves, Britton Cumbo was the last of his race to be removed from membership.
The church history is inaccurate here. Britton Cumbo was not enslaved, clear evidence being his inclusion in the 1850 census, his court apprentice record, his father’s status and inclusion in 1820 and 1830 census records. But he was likely required to worship in the slave section because he was of color. I’d like to think that even had he been given a choice, he still would have chosen to worship with his enslaved church members with whom he shared African ancestry.
What are your stories of discovering Cumbo ancestors who were “free people of color”? Please share them with us in the comments section of this blog post.
That’s wonderful cousin that you have found out so much about the Cumbo’s. Very interesting post. I always enjoy reading about other peoples research, keeps me motivated also. Thank you for sharing.
Thank you cousin! I remember reading your blog when we first connected. You are an inspiration.
I enjoyed reading the fruits of your research. In my research, I have run across various Authors/Recorders of History etc., who want to sort of dismiss the mixture of African & Native People. They, except & purport the mixture of French & Native/English & Native/Spanish & Native. I get the feeling when reading Paul Heinegg’s work/ that he might be one of those who dismisses our mixtures. Louis “Skip” Gates thought because of his “Redman” surname connection that he part Native. But, to his dismay he was mainly Irish & African descent. Now, he was almost sure he was part Native American. I could tell in his voice and mannerisms that he was a little disappointed and surprised.
But, if one reads “John Lawson 1701″””Stephen Pony Hill” “Jill Duvall Hill” “Marilyn Livingston” “Harry Thompson” “William H. Rhodes” ” Allen Watson” research on the Eastern Carolinians/Virginians/Delaware Etc., one will see that he records Indian Chiefs stating that they encouraged their flocks/tribal women to mix with the African man to produce a superior warrior who is impervious to the White man’s diseases, so as to save his peoples bloodlines. The Africans were immune to most of the diseases that the white man carried and these same diseases were wiping out whole tribes of Natives in some cases.
Thus, I am somewhat skeptical of Paul’s work. I understand, he was maybe living/working in Saudi Arabia while he was doing some of his research. I understand he may be Jewish descent and he married a woman from our area.
And, he consulted mostly the Colonial Virginian records which were some of his main resources. But, North Carolina was not a commonwealth state and her records/ enumeration are different, missing, burned, misplaced etc., with an agenda in mind to erase a whole culture/people per se. If I recall one US Census for 1790 is completely missing/destroyed.
I would like remind all researchers/genealogist that up until 1730’s 40’s Northampton, Hertford, Halifax, Chowan, Gates, Counties did not exist. It was all one huge land mass called “Bertie” County from the Carolina east coast to the Virginia Border per se. These aforementioned counties were cut out of the huge “Bertie”
A J. I appreciate the perspectives you are able to provide based on your own research and life experience in Northampton. I’m very eager to check out the authors and books you suggest. With respect to Paul Heinegg, I really appreciate the work he’s done to review and essentially index a vast collection of documentation on free persons of color into a single book. I don’t think his heritage is relevant to his capacity to do this type of research. He has done his best to connect the dots on relationships inferred based on analysis of the documentation as best as he can, but I don’t think he intends for any of us to accept what he’s published as gospel, but more as one source of many to be consulted when conducting research. As a matter of fact, what’s brilliant about what he is doing now, by releasing his book online, is that he’s essentially “crowdsourcing” corrections and updates to the book from researchers like us. I know many researchers who worked off of the foundation Paul was able to provide have shared their findings with him and he’s updated his book based on the new findings. In this way, his book is a living and breathing document. If I ever had the pleasure to meet Paul Heinegg in person, he’d get a smile, a hand shake and a thank you from me. Oh, and I can’t wait to meet you with a smile and a handshake at our reunion this summer. You are a true scholar and a gentleman.
I like and appreciate your perspectives. And, I do appreciate the fact that Paul is making some corrections. I did not intend to come down so condescending and I apologize if it was perceived that way but, put simply, I just had some questions/disagreements on some findings purported. I would cherish a meet & greet with Paul & Skip Gates as well. I also, am very much look forward to meeting you Andre. Cousin Corrine and I been communicating for a few years now but, have yet to meet in person. So, I am looking forward to meeting all. Doing this work/research/studying Is simply a
“Labor of Love”. I look at our part of NC/VA and ask myself why is it that our regions/ our root communities are so economically challenged? Also why so many prisons in a 50 mile radius?
Again, Andre, please excuse me for being a bit defensive when others are seemingly painting with a broad brush. In conclusion, I love my people, my roots, my region and want to educate/explain to the masses about our very rich history so, they/others can understand and embrace it. I have meet people through out my adult life and when one asks them where they are from ,they are hesitant and somewhat ashamed to say. They will often say they are from Raleigh, Norfolk etc., verses Rich Square, Jackson, Cumbo, Bryant Town, Ashe Town etc.,
Indeed. Check out this interactive map. 31% of Northampton is poor. 30.5% of Hertford county is poor.
http://www.nytimes.com/newsgraphics/2014/01/05/poverty-map/?ref=multimedia
It’s so ironic that these communities were historically a source of wealth for free black families who had opportunities to own and farm the land. These communities are now economically challenged becasue they never moved beyond an agrarian economy. The area is lacking an intellectual hub like a major university like in say Raleigh to serve as a spark for innovation and jobs. Best economic bet may be that Suffolk/Tidewater grows so big that Northampton becomes a bedroom community for people working in Suffolk. Look forward to picking your brain at reunion.
That is my prayer, my wish as well Our root region sits right in the middle basically of Rocky Mount NC & Suffolk VA. You can also get to Richmond, Virginia in 90 minutes and Raleigh NC in 90 minutes. “No mans land” is what some call it, while some others who hail from this area call it “Gods Country”.
“Let’ keep hope alive”
Thanks Andre for your work. My husband and I discovered the free status of the Cumbo family in the 1990s. We reached out to Paul Heinegg, who was very kind to call us, discuss the history, and send us one of the first copies of his book. We then ordered another to donate and be placed in the North Carolina Room at the main branch of our local public library. Since then you’ve carried the research into our family so much deeper than we did. We’re so thankful that you did. Keep up the good work. Love!!
From the Willie A. Cumbo family. Great Grandson of James HT Cumbo. Second Great Grandson of Britton Cumbo, Jr.
Thank you!